Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan (Republic of Kazakhstan) is a landlocked country in Central Asia. As the world's nineth largest country, it is also the world's largest landlocked country. Kazakhstan has an extremely low population density with over 16 million people on 1,052,100 square miles. The arid land, which is described as steppe, is called the "sea of grass" and had been used by nomads for many years as grazing land. The country's economy depends on agriculture and desposits of petroleum and natural gas. Kazakhstan declared its independence in 1991 from the Soviet Union. There are remnants from the Soviet era scattered around the country as it was used for nuclear weapon testing. In 1998, the country's capital was moved from Almaty to Astana. History Nomadic tribes have inhabited the area of present day Kazakhstan since the first century BC. For the next twelve centuries, the land was ruled by various tribes which did not allow for the development of a national identity. Modern Kazaks are the descendants of Turkish and Mongol tribes that migrated into the area in the thirteen century. Major cities of the medieval time period, Taraz and Turkestan, was established along the Silk Road. By the sixteen century, the Kazaks had established a common nationality through language, culture, and economy. During the early seventeenth, the Kazakh Khanate developed the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes to rule the land. The large extended family ruled Kazakhstan for the next 250 but saw a decline of their power starting from the eighteenth century due to increasing Russian influence. Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936, and many traditional practices were banned. The Russians forced collectivization of agriculture that resulted in widespread famine. Efforts for Russification resulted in opposition among the natives who resented Soviet rule. Nikita Khrushchev implemented in 1953 his "Virgin Lands" plan which intended to turn the vast pasture land of Kazakhstan into grain-producing farms. Opposition against Soviet rule increased; in December of 1986, young Kazaks participated in mass demonstrations and were suppressed by Soviet troops. Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost furthur encouraged demonstrations Kazakhstan's declaration of independence within the USSR in October 1990. The country gained full independence on December 16, 1991. Kazakhstan retained the basic Russian governmental structure. The constitution of 1993 made the prime minister and the Council of Ministers responsible solely to the president, and in 1995 a new constitution reinforced that relationship. Furthermore, opposition parties were severely limited by legal restrictions on their activities. In the mid-1990s, Russia remained the most important sponsor of Kazakhstan in economic and national security matters. As sensitive ethnic, national security and economic issues cooled relations with Russia in the 1990s, the country cultivated relations with the People's Republic of China, the other Central Asian nations, and the West. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan remains principally dependent on Russia. Geography Kazakhstan is located on the junction of two continents - Europe and Asia, between 45 and 87 degrees of east longitude, 40 and 55 degrees of northern breadth. The geographical center of the European-Asian subcontinent is in Kazakhstan (on an intersection 78 meridians with 50 parallel) - in epicenter of former Semipalatinsk nuclear zone. Kazakhstan occupies a square equal to 2724,9 thousand sq. km. (1048,3 thousand sq. miles) also is stretching to east from the Caspian sea and Volga's of plains up to mountain Altai from Tian-Shan foothills in the south and southeast up to the West-Siberian lowland in north. The extent of its territory exceeds 3000 km from west to east (1150 miles), from the south to north - 1700 km (650 miles). Kazakhstan is on the ninth place in the world considering the territory occupied, i.e. USA, Brazil, Australia, India and Argentina enter the top ten of largest states of the world - after Russia, Canada, China. On Kazakhstan's territory can contain seven largest European states as France, Spain, Sweden, Germany, Finland, Italy and Great Britain, or such states of Asia, as Pakistan, Turkey, Iraq, Japan and Vietnam taken together. Only this can testify the huge potential possibilities of this region on the globe. Politics Kazakhstan is formally a constitutional republic; the president has authoritarian rule and there is little power outside the executive branch. The country is divided into 14 oblasts and the two municipal districts (Almaty and Astana), which are headed by an akim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal akims are appointed by oblast akims. The capital is located at Astana.The president is also the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev has been in office since Kazakhstan became independent. The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's figurative head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 17 ministers in the Cabinet Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, comprised of a lower house (the Mazhilis) and upper house (the Senate). Economy Kazakhstan has large reserves of fossil fuel along with other minerals and metals such as uranium, copper, and zinc. Agriculture, mostly livestock and grain, plays a key role in the country's economy. Overall, the country's monetary policies have been well managed with its GDP increasing by 7% in 2011. Kazakhstan's infrastructure and communication systems have been slowly improving in the past years. The government plays an active role in regulating the economy. During the worldwide recession of 2008, the government devalued the tenge (Kazakhstan's currency) which helped to stabilize market pressure and promote economic stimulus. Despite continuing growth, the country's economy relies heavily on the oil and extractive industries resulting in the so-call "Dutch disease." As a result, the government has been busy with plans to diversify income sources. Culture When Kazakhstan gained its independence from the Soviets in 1991, the Kazaks were a minority with the majority composed of Ukrainians and Russians in the northern part of the country. Over the last two decades, the Kazaks have grown in number due to the goal of the government which promotes a Kazak majority. The Kazaks were nomads and herders for centuries. Their tribes were the basis for their society, and families were highly hierarchical. Greetings between Kazaks are rather formal with the handshake being the most popular and accepted form. They enjoy hosting dinners and will serve all even if not invited to the meal. There is a great deal of alcohol during the meals which are intended as social events. The Kazaks dress conservatively as a sign of respect. In more rural settings, a boiled sheep's head on a highly decorated plate is a sign of respect that is offered to an honored guest. The ear is given to the smallest child so that he/she will listen to and obey the elders. The eyes are given to the two closest friends so that they will take care of the guest. The upper palate is given to the females so that they would hold their tongues. Religion The Kazaks are traditionally Sunni Muslims but adopted Islam gradually with a complete conversion in the early nineteenth century. During the Soviet era, the Slavic peoples were Orthodox Christians and a part of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2009, about 70% of the total population is Muslim, and of those, a majority are Sunni. Practicing Muslims are most concentrated in the southern part of the country while the northern part of the country contains the majority of the Orthodox Christians, a remnant of Soviet rule. There are other minor religious minorities such as Roman Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and Buddhists. Tourism Zenkov Cathedral, Almaty Zenkov Cathedral is surrounded by Panfilov Park, a pleasant rectangle of greenery. The Park was named after the heroes of World War II. The Cathedral is one of the few tzarist-era buildings to survive the 1911 earthquake, despite the fact it is built entirely of wood and constructed without nails. It is also one of the eight most unique wooden buildings and the second tallest wooden building in the world. After the revolution it was used as historical museum, cultural center, and just in 1990 again it was given a status of a Russian Orthodox cathedral. Shymbulak Ski Resort, Almaty Ski Resort "Chimbulak" is located in a picturesque valley Trans-Ili Alatau at a height of 2260 m above sea level, 25 km from the center of Almaty. The average summer temperature is 20 degrees Celsius and in winter around -7 degrees Celsius. The average snow depth is 150 cm, and the number of sunny days per year is up to 90%. The time of snow cover range from November to May. Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve, Shymkent Aksu-Zhabagly is the oldest and most famous nature reserve in Central Asia. It was founded in 1926, its territory was constantly increasing and now is 132.6 thousands hectares. It is located on the Ugam and Maidantal ridges of Talasskiy Alatau in Western part of Tien Shan. The name of nature reserve is formed from the name of its two biggest rivers – Aksu and Zhabagly, between which it was originally created. All the diversity of wildlife and abiocoen objects is carefully conserved in the nature reserve. Only catastrophic occurrences like fires assume human interference. That is why the scientists have a unique laboratory to research the nature in its original condition, and nature reserve visitors can observe and value the original beauty and diversity of West Tien Shan landscapes.